Management Skills in Human Resource Development Essay

Technical skills encompass the ability to apply specialized knowledge or expertise. When you think of the skills held by professionals such as civil or oral surgeons, you typically focus on their technical skills .Through extensive formal education, they have learned the special knowledge and practices of their field. Of course ,professionals donà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t have a monopoly on technical skills ,and not all technical skills ,have to be learned in schools or formal training programs .All jobs require some specialized expertise ,and many people develop their technical skills on the job. Human Skills The ability to work with ,understand ,and motivate other people ,both individually and in groups ,describes ,human skills many people are technically proficient but interpersonally incompetent. They might be poor listeners ,unable to understand the needs of others, or have difficulty managing conflicts .Since managers get things done through other people ,they must have good human skills to communicate ,motivate, and delegate. Conceptual Skills Managers must have the mental ability to analyze and diagnose complex situations. These tasks require conceptual skills. Decision making, for instance, requires managers to spot problems, identify alternatives that can correct them, evaluate those alternatives ,and select the best one .Managers can be technically and interpersonally competent yet still fail because of an inability to rationally process and interpret information Effective vs. Successful Managerial activities Fred Luthans and his associates looked at the issue of what managers do from a somewhat different perspective. They asked the question : Do managers who move up most quickly in an organization do the same activities and with the same emphasis as managers who do the best job? You would tend to think that the managers who were the most effective in their jobs would also be the ones who were promoted fastest .But thatà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s not what appears to happen. Luthans and his associates studied more than 450 managers .What they found was that these managers all engaged in four managerial activities : Traditional Management. Decision making ,planning, and controlling. Communication. Exchanging routine information and processing paperwork.

Blood Promise Chapter Twenty-Two

I didn't cry very often. And I hated it when I did. The last time I'd done it around Dimitri, his arms had immediately encircled me. This time, all I got was a look of coldness and anger. â€Å"This is your fault!† he yelled, fists clenched. I cringed backward, eyes wide. â€Å"But he†¦ he attacked me†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Yes. And Inna. A human! You let a human attack you.† He couldn't keep the sneer from his voice. â€Å"You are weak. You are incapable of defending yourself-all because you refuse to be awakened!† His voice was terrifying, and the look he gave me†¦ well, it scared me almost more than Nathan had. Reaching forward, he jerked me up to my feet. â€Å"If you had just been killed, it would have been your own fault,† he said. His fingers dug into my wrist as he shook me. â€Å"You have the chance for immortality, for incredible strength! And you're too blind and stubborn to see it.† I swallowed back more tears and rubbed my eyes with the back of my free hand. No doubt I was ruining the makeup I'd so painstakingly put on. My heart was ready to explode out of my chest, I was so afraid. I expected rage and threats from Nathan-but not Dimitri. You've forgotten he's a Strigoi, something whispered in my mind. I'd gone long enough without a bite and had enough adrenaline kicking me to alertness that my nagging voice was speaking more loudly than it had in a very long time. Dimitri said I was weak because I wasn't Strigoi, but there was more to it than that. I was weak and had been subdued by Nathan and Inna because I was an addict, because I was living a life of blissful ignorance that was taking a toll on my body and my mind. The thought was startling, and I could barely hold onto it. My yearning for vampire endorphins flared up, and the two factions warred in my mind. I had enough sense not to voice any of those thoughts. I tried for something that would pacify Dimitri instead. â€Å"I don't think I'd be stronger than Nathan, even if I was turn-awakened.† He ran a hand over my hair, his cold voice thoughtful. He seemed to be calming down, but his eyes were still angry and impatient. â€Å"Perhaps not initially, but your strength of body and will carries over with the change. He's not that much older than either of us-not enough to make a noticeable difference, which is why he keeps backing down when we fight.† â€Å"Why do you keep backing down?† I felt his body go rigid, and I realized my question might be read as a slam against his prowess. I swallowed, my fear returning. He hadn't let go of my wrist, and it was starting to hurt. â€Å"Because he's right about one thing,† Dimitri said stiffly. â€Å"Killing him would bring Galina's wrath down on us. And that's not something I can afford. Yet.† â€Å"You said before that you†¦ that we†¦ had to kill her.† â€Å"Yes, and once we do, it'll be easy to seize control of her assets and organization.† â€Å"What is her organization exactly?† If I kept distracting him, the anger might go away. The monster might go away. He shrugged. â€Å"All sorts of things. This wealth isn't bought without effort.† â€Å"Effort that's illegal and hurts humans?† â€Å"Does it matter?† I didn't bother with an answer. â€Å"But Galina used to be your teacher. Can you really kill her? And I don't mean physically†¦ I mean, doesn't it bother you?† He considered. â€Å"I told you before. It's all about strength and weakness. Prey and predator. If we can bring her down-and I have no doubts we can -then she's prey. End of story.† I shivered. It was so harsh, such a stark and scary way of viewing the world. Dimitri released my wrist just then, and a wave of relief ran through me. On shaky legs, I backed up and sat on the couch. For a moment, I feared he'd grab me again, but instead he sat down beside me. â€Å"Why did Inna attack me? Why did she defend Nathan?† â€Å"Because she loves him.† Dimitri didn't bother hiding his disgust. â€Å"But how†¦?† â€Å"Who knows? Part of it is that he's promised to awaken her once she's put in time here.† Sydney's warnings came back to me, about why the Alchemists feared that humans would learn about vampires-because humans might want to turn too. â€Å"That's what most of the human servants are told.† â€Å"Told?† â€Å"Most are unworthy. Or, more often than not, someone gets hungry and finishes the human off.† I was getting sick to my stomach, independent of Dimitri's proximity. â€Å"This is all a mess.† â€Å"It doesn't have to be.† I didn't think he would shake me again, but there was a dangerous glint in his eyes. The monster was only a heartbeat away. â€Å"Time's running out. I've been lenient, Roza. Far more lenient than I would be with anyone else.† â€Å"Why? Why have you done it?† I wanted-needed-then to hear him say it was because he loved me and that because of that love, he could never force me into anything I didn't want. I needed to hear it so that I could blot out that terrifying, furious creature I'd seen a few minutes ago. â€Å"Because I know how you think. And I know awakening you of your own free will would make you a more important ally. You're independent and strong-minded-that's what makes you valuable.† â€Å"An ally, huh?† Not the woman he loved. He shifted so that his face hovered over mine. â€Å"Didn't I tell you once I'd always be there for you? I'm here. I'll protect you. We're going to be together. We're meant to be together. You know this.† There was more fierceness in his voice than affection. He kissed my lips, drawing me close. The usual heat flooded me, my body instantly responding to his. But even as my body did one thing, other thoughts were spinning through my mind. I had always thought we were meant to be together. And he had once told me he'd always be there for me. I'd always wanted that too-but I had wanted to be there for him in return. I wanted us to be equals, always watching each other's backs. Today hadn't been like that. I'd been defenseless. Weak. Never, never in my life had I been like that. Even in horrible, outmatched moments, I'd put up a decent fight. At the very least, I'd had the will to fight. Not now. I'd been terrified. I'd been ineffectual. I hadn't been able to do anything except sit there pathetically and wait for someone to rescue me. I'd let a human get the best of me. Dimitri said me becoming Strigoi was the solution. For the last week, he'd said that over and over, and while I hadn't agreed to it, I hadn't been as repulsed as I once had been. Lately, it had become a thought floating around out there, a far-off way for us to be together. And I did want to be together, especially in moments like this, when we kissed and desire crackled around both of us. But this time†¦ the desire wasn't quite as intense as usual. It was still there, but I couldn't shake the image of how he'd just been. It occurred to me with startling clarity that I was making out with a Strigoi. And that was†¦ weird. Breathing heavy, Dimitri pulled away from my lips for a moment and stared at me. Even with that composed Strigoi expression, I could see that he wanted me-in a lot of ways. It was confusing. He was Dimitri and not Dimitri. Leaning back down, he kissed my cheek, then my chin, and then my neck. His mouth opened wider, and I started to feel the points of his fangs†¦ â€Å"No,† I blurted out. He froze. â€Å"What did you say?† My heart started thumping again, as I braced myself for more rage. â€Å"Um†¦ no. Not this time.† He pulled back and looked at me, seeming both shocked and annoyed. When he didn't respond, I began to ramble. â€Å"I don't feel good†¦ I'm hurt. I'm afraid to lose the blood, even though I want†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Dimitri always said I couldn't lie to him, but I had to try. I put on my best, most passionate and innocent face. â€Å"I want it†¦ I want to feel the bite†¦ but I want to rest first, get stronger†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Let me awaken you, and you'll be strong again.† â€Å"I know,† I said, still keeping my voice slightly frantic. I looked away, hoping to increase the facade of confusion. Okay, with my life lately, faking confusion wasn't that hard. â€Å"And I'm starting to think†¦Ã¢â‚¬  I heard a sharp intake of breath. â€Å"Starting to think what?† I turned back to him, hoping I could convince him I was seriously considering turning. â€Å"I'm starting to think that I don't ever want to be weak again.† I could see it in his face. He believed me. But then, that last part hadn't been a lie. I didn't want to be weak. â€Å"Please†¦ I just want to rest. I need to think about it a little more.† There it was, the moment this all weighed on. The truth was, I wasn't just lying to him. I was lying to myself. Because seriously? I wanted that bite. Badly. I'd already gone a long time without one, and my body was screaming for it. I needed the endorphins, needed them more than air or food. And yet, in only one day without them, I'd gained a tiny shard of clarity. The part of me that wanted nothing more than the joy of ignorant ecstasy didn't care about my mind growing clearer, yet I knew, deep inside, that I had to try for a little bit more, even if it meant depriving myself of what I most wanted. After a lot of thought, Dimitri nodded and stood up. He'd read my words like I'd reached a turning point and was on the verge of accepting. â€Å"Rest, then,† he said. â€Å"And we'll talk later. But Rose†¦ we only have two days.† â€Å"Two days?† â€Å"Until Galina's deadline. That's how long she gave us. Then I make the decision for you.† â€Å"You'll awaken me?† I wasn't entirely sure if death was on the table anymore. â€Å"Yes. It'll be better for all of us if we don't reach that point.† He got off the bed and stood up. He paused a moment and reached into his pocket. â€Å"Oh. I brought you this.† He handed me a bracelet encrusted with opals and tiny diamonds, almost like it was no big deal. The bracelet was dazzling, and each opal shone with a thousand colors. â€Å"Wow. It's†¦ it's gorgeous.† I slipped it on my wrist, yet somehow, gifts like this didn't mean as much anymore. With a satisfied look, he leaned down and kissed me on the forehead. He headed for the door then and left me lying back against the couch, trying desperately to think of anything else except how I wished he would turn around and bite me. The rest of the day was agonizing. I'd always read about addicts, about how hard a time people had breaking away from alcohol or illegal drugs. I'd even once witnessed a feeder go kind of crazy when he was removed from service. He'd grown too old, and it was considered hazardous to his health to keep on giving blood to Moroi. I'd watched in amazement as he begged and pleaded to be allowed to stay, how he'd sworn he didn't mind the risk. Even though I'd known he had an addiction, I just couldn't understand why it would be so worth it for him to risk his life like that. Now I did. In those hours that passed, I would have risked my life to be bitten again. That was actually kind of funny because if I did allow another bite, I would be risking my life. I had no doubt more of that cloudy thinking would lead to an acceptance of Dimitri's offer. But with each miserable, bite deprived second that passed, my thoughts grew incrementally sharper. Oh, I was still a long way away from being free of the dreamy haze of vampire endorphins. When we'd been captured in Spokane, Eddie had been used as a Strigoi blood source, and it had taken him days to recover. Each bit of clarity now made me realize how important it was for me to stay bite free. Not that that knowledge made it any easier on my body. I had some serious problems here. It seemed like either way, I was destined to become a Strigoi. Dimitri wanted to turn me so that we could reign together as the vampiric equivalent of Bonnie and Clyde. Nathan wanted to turn me in the hopes of hunting down Lissa-and then kill me. Clearly, Dimitri's option was more appealing, but not by much. Not anymore. Yesterday, I would have said becoming a Strigoi was something I wasn't going to worry about too much. Now, the harsh reality of what it truly meant hit me, and my old feelings returned. Suicide versus existence as a creature of evil. Of course, being a creature of evil meant I could be with Dimitri†¦ Except it wasn't Dimitri. Was it? It was all so confusing. I again tried to remind myself of what he'd said long ago-that no matter how much a Strigoi seemed like the person I used to know, they weren't. Yet this Dimitri said he'd been wrong about that. â€Å"It's the endorphins, Rose. They're like drugs†¦Ã¢â‚¬  I groaned and buried my face in my hands as I sat on the couch, the TV droning in the background. Lovely. I was talking to myself now. Supposing I could break this hold Dimitri had over me and this addled state that kept making me think I'd misunderstood Strigoi†¦ well, then what? I was back to the original dilemma. No weapons to fight Strigoi with. No weapons with which to kill myself. I was back at their mercy, but at least now I was closer to putting up a good fight. Sure, it would be a losing fight, but I felt that if I stayed off the endorphins a little longer, I'd at least be able to take down Inna. That had to count for something. And there it was. Off the endorphins. Each time my mind ran through my options and hit a wall, I would spiral back to the physical reality in front of me. I wanted that high back. I wanted that haze of joy back. I needed it back, or surely, I would die. That would be what killed me and freed me from being a Strigoi†¦ â€Å"Damn it!† I stood up and began pacing around, hoping to distract myself. TV wasn't doing it; that was for sure. If I could just hold out a little longer, I could shake the drug from my system, I could figure out how to save myself and Lissa, and Lissa! Without any debate, I dove into her. If I was in her body and mind, then maybe I wouldn't have to deal with mine for a while. My withdrawal would pass more quickly. Lissa and her group had returned from the Royal Court a bit more grimly than they arrived. The cold light of morning had made Lissa feel incredibly idiotic about the party's events. Dancing on a table wasn't the worst thing in the world, but looking back over other parties she'd been to that weekend and her social life with Avery made her wonder what had gotten into her. Sometimes, she didn't even feel like herself. And the kiss with Aaron†¦ well, that was an entirely different guilt-inducing matter altogether. â€Å"Don't worry about it,† Avery told her on the plane. â€Å"We all do stupid stuff when we're drunk.† â€Å"Not me,† groaned Lissa. â€Å"This isn't like me.† Despite this claim, Lissa had nonetheless agreed to drink mimosas-champagne mixed with orange juice-on the ride back. Avery smiled. â€Å"I don't have anything to compare it to. You seem okay to me. But then, you aren't trying to run off with a human or some non-royal guy.† Lissa smiled back, and her eyes went to Jill, sitting a little ahead of them on the plane. Adrian had spoken to the younger girl earlier, but she was busy with a book now, her biggest concern seeming to be to stay away from Reed. He sat with Simon again, and Lissa was a little surprised to see the guardian eyeing Jill suspiciously. Maybe Reed had told Simon that the younger girl was some kind of threat. â€Å"You're worried about her?† asked Avery, following Lissa's gaze. â€Å"It's not that†¦ I just can't shake the way she looked at me last night.† â€Å"She's young. I think she's easily shocked.† Lissa supposed that was true. Yet young or not, there had been something refreshingly clear and honest in the way Jill had called Lissa out. It reminded Lissa of something I might do. And Lissa couldn't rest easy knowing someone like that thought badly of her. Lissa stood up. â€Å"I'll be right back,† she told Avery. â€Å"I'm going to talk to her.† Jill was obviously astonished when Lissa sat beside her. The younger girl put a bookmark in what she was reading, and whatever she might be feeling, her smile for Lissa was genuine. â€Å"Hey.† â€Å"Hey,† said Lissa. She hadn't had much of the mimosa yet and still controlled enough spirit to see Jill's aura. It was a rich teal blue, interspersed with purple and darker blue. Good, strong colors. â€Å"Look, I wanted to apologize for what happened last night†¦ what I said†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Oh,† said Jill flushing. â€Å"It's okay, really. I mean, things were kind of crazy, and I know you weren't thinking straight. At least, I don't think you were. I don't really know. I've never actually had a drink, so I can't say.† Jill's nervousness always seemed to make her oscillate between rambling and silence. â€Å"Yeah, well, I should have been thinking straight before I got in that situation. And I'm really sorry for what happened with Reed.† Lissa lowered her voice. â€Å"No clue what happened there†¦ but that wasn't right, what he did and said to you.† Both girls found themselves studying him. He was deep in a book, but suddenly, as though he could sense them watching, his gaze turned toward Jill and Lissa. He glared, and they immediately looked away. â€Å"That definitely wasn't your fault,† said Jill. â€Å"And, you know, Adrian was there and everything. So it turned out okay.† Lissa worked to keep a straight face. Adrian was sitting out of their view, but if he hadn't been, Lissa had a feeling Jill would have been gazing at him dreamily. Adrian was doing a good deal of gazing of his own at Avery lately, and Lissa could see Jill was never going to leave that little-sister role for him. Yet it seemed clear that Jill was developing a little bit of a crush. It was cute, and even though Lissa knew it was stupid on her part, she couldn't help feeling a bit of relief that Adrian was the object of Jill's affections and not Christian. â€Å"Well, here's hoping for better choices,† said Lissa. â€Å"And hoping no one thinks too badly of me.† â€Å"I don't,† said Jill. â€Å"And I'm sure Christian won't either.† Lissa frowned, confused for a moment. â€Å"Well†¦ there's no point in stressing him out over it. It was my stupid mistake; I'll deal with it.† Now Jill frowned. She hesitated before speaking, that old nervousness returning. â€Å"But you have to. You have to tell him the truth, right?† â€Å"It's no big deal,† said Lissa, surprised at how defensive she suddenly felt. That unpredictable anger started to raise its head. â€Å"But†¦ you guys are in a serious relationship†¦ You have to always be honest, don't you? I mean, you can't lie to him.† Lissa rolled her eyes. â€Å"Jill, you haven't been in a serious relationship either, have you? Have you even gone on one date? I'm not lying to him. I'm just not telling him stuff that's going to freak him out for no reason. It's not the same.† â€Å"It is,† argued Jill. I could tell how much it killed her to talk back to Lissa, but I admired her boldness. â€Å"He has a right to know.† Lissa sighed irritably and stood up. â€Å"Forget it. I thought we could have an adult conversation, but apparently not.† The withering look she gave Jill made the girl flinch. Still, back at the Academy, guilt plagued Lissa. Christian greeted her return happily, showering her with kisses and hugs. She firmly believed Jill had overreacted, yet each time Lissa looked at Christian, she kept thinking about that kiss with Aaron. Was it as wrong as Jill had implied? It had been casual and under the influence of alcohol. Lissa knew telling Christian would upset him, though, and she hated to bring that on. Avery, listening as Lissa deliberated, agreed that there was no need to worry about it. Yet, as I looked at her through Lissa's eyes, my impression was that Avery was more worried about what Lissa's emotional reaction would be if she and Christian had a blowout. The morals seemed beside the point; Avery wanted to protect Lissa. It seemed like it was all going to blow over†¦ until later in the day, when Lissa met up with Christian to walk to dinner. His face was a storm cloud as he approached Lissa in her dorm's lobby, his pale blue eyes looking like they could shoot lightning bolts. â€Å"When were you going to tell me?† he demanded. His voice was loud, and several passing people turned in surprise. Lissa hurried him to a corner, pitching her voice low. â€Å"What are you talking about?† â€Å"You know what I'm talking about. You using your weekend getaway as a chance to hook up with other guys.† She stared at him for several heavy seconds. Then the truth hit. â€Å"Jill told you!† â€Å"Yes. I had to drag it out of her. She showed up to practice with me and was on the verge of tears.† Uncharacteristic anger suddenly burned through Lissa. â€Å"She had no right!† â€Å"You had no right. Do you honestly think you could do something like that-without ever letting me know?† â€Å"Christian, it was a stupid drunk kiss, for God's sake. A joke because he saved me from falling off a table. It meant nothing.† Christian's face grew pensive, and Lissa thought for sure he was about to agree with her. â€Å"It would have been nothing,† he said at last, â€Å"if you'd told me yourself. I shouldn't have had to hear it from someone else.† â€Å"Jill-â€Å" â€Å"-isn't the problem. You are.† Shock stunned Lissa for a moment. â€Å"What are you saying?† â€Å"I†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Christian suddenly looked weary. He rubbed his eyes. â€Å"I don't know. It's just†¦ things have been rough lately. I just†¦ I'm just not sure if I can deal with all this. You were picking fights with me before you left, and now this?† â€Å"Why won't you listen? It was nothing! Even Avery agreed.† â€Å"Oh,† said Christian sarcastically, â€Å"if Avery agreed, then it must be okay.† Lissa's temper raised its ugly head. â€Å"What's that supposed to mean? I thought you liked her.† â€Å"I do. But I don't like how you're confiding in her more than me lately.† â€Å"You didn't have a problem with me confiding in Rose.† â€Å"Avery's not Rose.† â€Å"Christian†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He shook his head. â€Å"Look, I don't really want to go to dinner anymore. I just need to think.† â€Å"When am I going to see you again?† she asked frantically. Her anger had been supplanted by fear. â€Å"I don't know. Later.† He left without another word. Lissa stared after him, aghast as he walked out of the lobby. She wanted to go throw herself at him, beg him to come back and forgive her. There were too many people around, however, and she refused to make a scene-or intrude on his space. Instead, she took off to the only resource she had left: Avery. â€Å"Didn't expect to see you again,† Avery said, opening the door to her room. â€Å"What are you-Jesus Christ. What's the matter?† She ushered Lissa in and demanded the story. With a lot of tears and near-hysteric rambling, Lissa related what had happened with Christian. â€Å"And I don't know what he meant. Does he want to break up? Will he come talk to me later? Should I go to him?† Lissa buried her face in her hands. â€Å"Oh God. You don't think there's anything going on with him and Jill, do you?† â€Å"Jailbait? No,† exclaimed Avery. â€Å"Of course not. Look, you need to calm down. You're freaking me out. This is going to be okay.† Anxiety lined Avery's face, and she went to get Lissa a glass of water. Then, reconsidering, she poured a glass of wine instead. Sitting alone, Lissa felt her wild emotions torment her. She hated what she'd done. She felt like there was something wrong with her. First she'd alienated me, and now Christian. Why couldn't she keep her friends? What did it take? Was she really going crazy? She felt out of control and desperate. And she Bam! Suddenly, and without warning, I was shoved out of Lissa's head. Her thoughts disappeared completely. I'd neither left of my own choice, nor had I been snapped back because of something in my own body. I stood in the room alone, having come to a standstill while pacing and thinking. Never, never had anything like that happened to me. This had been like†¦ well, like a physical force. Like a glass wall or force field slamming down in front of me and pushing me back. It had been an outside power. It hadn't come from me. But what was it? Had it been Lissa? To my knowledge, she'd never been able to feel me in her head. Had that changed? Had she kicked me out? Had her spinning feelings grown so strong that there was no room for me? I didn't know, and I didn't like any of it. When it had happened, aside from the sensation of being pushed, I'd experienced another strange feeling. It was like a fluttering, as if someone had reached in and tickled my mind. I'd had brief warm and cold flashes, and then it had all stopped once I was out of her head. It had felt invasive. And it had also felt†¦ familiar.

An Analysis of P.S. I Love You

Running Head: P. S. I LOVE YOU 1 An Analysis of P. S. I Love You Tammy McDaniel ENG 225 Jonathan Beller August 15, 2011 P. S. I LOVE YOU 2 An Analysis of P. S. I Love You The 2007 film, P. S. I Love You, is a film about learning to let go and move on with your life after the death of a spouse. The Film stars Hilary Swank, Million Dollar Baby and Gerard Butler, 300. It also stars Lisa Kudrow as Denise, Gina Gershon as Sharon, James Marsters as John, Kathy Bates as Patricia (Hollys mom), Nellie McKay as Ciara (Hollys sister), Harry Connick Jr. s Daniel, and Jeffrey Dean Morgan as William. This paper will critique the film, P. S. I Love You, through textual and formal analysis focusing on the following elements.. Storytelling, Acting, Cinematography, Editing, Sound, Style and Directing, Societal Impact, Genre, and Film Criticism and Analysis. By examining the films technical elements, you can gain a better understanding of the directors vision of the film. P. S. I Love You is a 2007 American drama directed by Richard LaGavenese. The screenplay by LaGavenese and Steven Rogers is based on the 2004 novel P. S. I Love You by Cecelia Ahern. This film was shot on locations in New York City and county Wicklow, Ireland. (Imdb. com) In this film, P. S. I Love You, Hilary Swank plays Holly, an American who marries an Irishman,Gerry (played by Gerard Butler). Gerry is Hollys soul mate, the love of her life. A few weeks shy of her 30th birthday Gerry dies from a brain tumor. Holly feels so lost without Gerry that for weeks she stays in her apartment and does not want to see or talk to anyone except Gerry. On her 30th birthday her friends come over to force her to celebrate and get out of her slump. A cake arrives mysteriously. When opened Holly finds a tape recorded message from Gerry. He tells her that she will receive a series of letters and that she has to do what each letter says. A different letter will arrive each month for ten months. The letters range from singing Karaoke to P. S. I LOVE YOU 3 going to Ireland with her friends. During the course of these letters Holly is pushed into a new future. Gerry has sent her on a journey to discover who she is without him in her life. Gerry ends each letter with P. S. I Love You. The filmmakers presented this film in chronological order to show how Holly deals with her life without Gerry and how she finds the courage to move on. This film takes place in a years time with a few flashbacks to help you understand the love that Holly and Gerry shared. Some of the settings used in this film include: Holly and Gerrys apartment, Hollys Moms bar, and Ireland. Holly suffers from an internal conflict. She knows that she will have to let Gerry go but, she does not want to. She resolves this conflict by reading Gerrys letters and doing what he asks. The letters in this film are a symbolic gesture of Gerrys love for Holly and him wanting her to move on with her life and not be depressed that he is gone. People who have lost a loved one can understand the internal conflict that Holly suffers from. This makes the movie more real to these people. I think this film ends up being a Situational Irony occurs when we expect one thing to happen and something else does. (Goodykoontz Jacobs, 2011). Through out the entire movie film you believe that Gerry set everything up with the post office so the letters arrive to Holly on certain days. At the end of the film you find the Gerry talked Hollys mom into delivering the letters to Holly. Against her feelings that this was not good For Holly she does what Gerry asks. The dialogue in this film allows you to see how Holly goes from being depressed to being happy with her life. You can tell the difference when Holly is talking to someone that she is slowly letting go of Gerry. I believe that the plot and the character drives the film forward. The plot P. S. I LOVE YOU 4 consists of carefully chosen elements from the tory that the writer feels the viewer needs to know and has arranged into a consciously designed order, leaving out some things and possibly repeating other things more than once. (Goodykoontz Jacobs, 2011) I feel that this goes hand in hand with Hollys mom being the one delivering the letters. The character drives the film,because you want to see how Holly handles receiving the letters and following through with what Gerry wants her to do. This is a film that uses flashbacks to help you understand certain things. The flashbacks in this film allows the audience to see just how much Gerry loved Holly. It shows that he loved her so much he wanted to help her move on with her life. He wrote those letters knowing that he was going to die. He wanted to help ease Hollys pain after he was gone. I feel that the flashbacks in this film help the film so much, because without them you would never really know how much Gerry loved Holly. This Film used realism acting. This is acting that does not draw attention to itself but instead gives the impression of genuine human action and emotion. (Goodykoontz Jacobs, 2011) I believe that both Hilary Swank and Gerard Butler are wild card actors. Wild card actors are actors that can play a wide variety of characters equally without becoming typecast. (Goodykoontz Jacobs, 2011) Both Hilary and Gerard I feel are actors that can do any kind of role. Hilary has done roles from Million Dollar Baby to Boys Dont Cry. Gerard has done roles from 300 to Bounty Hunter. Bot h can do comedy, drama, and romance. Which is what P. S. I Love You is. I thinks that the casting in this film was excellent and I do not feel that anyone was miscast. I feel that it helped quite a bit knowing who these actors were before seeing this movie and I do not feel that their persona distracted from their character. While watching this film I forgot that I was watching Hilary Swank and was just watching Holly. There is a scene in the P. S. I LOVE YOU 5 few weeks after Gerrys death where Holly is lip-syncing to a Judy Garland song. I feel that this scene shows us just how much Holly misses Gerry. She has let herself go. Her clothes are dirty as is her hair. The apartment is a total wreck (trash, food, old take-out, and dirty dishes everywhere). When you see all this you view Holly as a depressed and sad person. At the end of the year Holly is clean and dresses very nice and you view her as happy and enjoying her new life. What drew me to this movie in the first place was the title and the actors. After seeing the movie after taking this class I found that I enjoyed the movie in a different and better way. When you notice small things that you did not notice before this class I feel that you can understand the movie better. When you understand how a movie is made it opens up a lot of different aspects of learning for you. If the director is responsible for the film overall, in a general way, the cinematographer is specifically responsible for its look, in very specific, shot–by–shot terms. He or she is responsible for the images that the camera sees, and by extension the images that the audience will see in the finished film. (Goodykoontz Jacobs, 2011) This film uses a variety of different shots. They vary fr om long shots, medium long shots, medium shots, and medium close-up shots. Most directors use several takes, and different camera setups or versions, of the same scene. This allows them to pick and choose the best of what they have shot and to put scenes together in the way that most effectively tells the story they are trying to tell. In order to have a variety of shots to edit together, however, all those different types of shots must be photographed in the first place. (Goodykoontz , 2011) This is the job of the Cinematographer and I feel that this cinematographer did an excellent job doing just that. P. S. I LOVE YOU 6 The cinematographer choice in lighting for different parts of the the movie was superb. For the funeral scene the cinematographer used low-key lighting. For the rest of the film he used high-key lighting. I like movies that a full of color. I have only one black and white movie that I like (Casablanca). The cinematographer uses Saturation color, Desaturation color, and The Golden Hour color in this film. Saturation color is deep, vibrant, bright, pure color. (Goodykoontz , 2011) and is used through most of the movie. Desaturation color has been muted, appearing less intense, which contributes to a more realistic, often–gritty look. (Goodykoontz Jacobs, 2011) and I feel is used during some f the funeral scene. The Golden Hour color also known as the magic hour (although it actually lasts only about 20 minutes), is the term used for the time of day just before sunrise and the time just after sunset, when colors appear more warm, almost glowing, and there are no shadows, since the sun is not in the sky. (Goodykoontz , 2011) is used during the outdoor scenes in I reland. All three used in the same movie allows the audience to feel different emotions through out the film. For the apartment a narrow focus is used to make the apartment feel smaller and more claustrophobic. When watching a movie at home I prefer watching it in widescreen compared to full screen. Widescreen allows the audience to feel like they are at a movie theater. Watching a movie on full screen feels like you are missing parts of the movie. The cinematographer wants you to focus on the characters more so than the background, but at times I feel like her wants you to also focus on the background at the same time. An example of this would be when Holly and Gerry meet for the first time in Ireland. You are focused on the characters but at the same time you are also focused on the beautiful scenery of Ireland. That is also the same for when the Holly, Denise, and Sharon are stuck on the boat. P. S. I LOVE YOU 7 The editors use fade-out/fade-in and direct cut shots. An example of a fade-out/fade-in shot would be after the opening scene and after the opening credits. An example of a direct cut shot would be when the girls are stuck in the boat on the lake. The next scene shows another boat coming to save them. The editor also used an establishing shot during the scenes to let you know who, what, and where for a scene. An example of this would be when Holly and Gerry meet for the first time. You know that it is Holly and Gerry in the scene, you know that they are meeting for the first time, you also know that they are in Ireland. There is also a lot of shot/reverse-shots in this movie. An example of this would be when Holly and Gerry are in their apartment at their own dressers arguing. The camera moves from Holly to Gerry through out the entire argument so you can see each of their expressions and you can also see if they make faces at each other because of something the other said. There are two kinds of film sound used in this movie. They are dialogue and voice-over. Dialogue is when two or more characters are speaking to each other. Through dialogue you feel how the characters are feeling and also you understand what is happening. An example of this would be when Holly and her mom are arguing that Holly is obsessed with the letters. You understand that Patricia does not like the letters at all. Voice-over is when a character’s voice narrates the action to help the audience understand what is going on. (Goodykoontz Jacobs, 2011) Another form of sound you have in a film is the score or the background music. This music allows the audience to experience a whole other experience during a movie. The score can make you happy, sad, scared, or excited. It also can portray how a character is feeling at the exact moment. P. S. I LOVE YOU 8 To me Richard LaGravenese is a director that likes to tell a story and show meaning in his work. In addition to P. S. I Love You his work includes: Water for Elephants, Freedom Writers, and Living Out Loud. I believe that this film is very well made. I have never seen a movie by this director before I could not tell you about how he approaches the subject matter of the film. I do not know anything about this directors own personal vision, however, by looking at his other pieces of work it seems to me that he runs toward romance and films that tend to have a meaning behind them. For this film I believe his meaning is that after losing a loved one you can move on and have fun again and enjoy your life. This film is a Drama and Romance movie with a sub-genre of comedy. I went into this film thinking it was a romance movie. While watching it a realized that it was a lot more than that. The purpose of a drama is to allow the audience to feel what the characters are feeling. The purpose of a romance is to feel the love that the characters share. The purpose of a comedy is to allow the audience to laugh with the characters. I feel that this is a film that can influence society. I say that because I feel that after seeing a movie like this people would want to have that kind of love. When my sister and I walked out of the theater we both said I want a man to love me like that! This is a film that allows the audience to escape from their daily lives and have a good time. What is more fun than laughing and crying at the same time when watching a movie? To me the answer is nothing is more fun. This film is Rated PG-13 for sexual references and brief nudity. This is definitely not a movie for a child younger than 13. P. S. I LOVE YOU 9 As with all films you will have critics that tell you whether a film is good or not. That critic can be a professional critic, a family member or a friend. I found a phrase and a quote in our text that explains what a critic is. What is a critic? There are many definitions, some of which are unflattering, including as they do charges of jealousy, mean–spiritedness, and flat–out incompetence. Ironically enough, one of the best definitions comes from a character in a film, and in an animated film, at that. In Pixar’s film Ratatouille (2007), Peter O’Toole provides the voice of Anton Ego, a famous food critic feared for his discriminating palate and his withering criticism. When he samples food that has secretly been prepared by a rat, everyone fears the worst (particularly the rat). However, Ego begins his review with a spirited defense of the art of criticism, observations that apply just as much to film criticism as to food criticism. In the movie Ego says, In many ways, the work of a critic is easy. We risk very little yet enjoy a position over those who offer up their work and their selves to our judgment. We thrive on negative criticism, which is fun to write and to read. But the bitter truth we critics must face, is that in the grand scheme of things, the average piece of junk is probably more meaningful than our criticism designating it so. But there are times when a critic truly risks something, and that is in the discovery and defense of the new. The world is often unkind to new talent, new creations; the new needs friends . . . Not everyone can become a great artist, but a great artist can come from anywhere. (Bird, 207) (Goodykoontz Jacobs, 2011) I myself do not read or listen to a critic or a review. If you do and that person said that a movie was bad than you might have missed a very good movie. P. S. I LOVE YOU 10 I watched this movie again with my sister before writing this assignment and as we watched I found myself telling my sister what kind of shots were being used and explaining what a fade-out/fade-in was. Watching this movie after taking these few weeks of class I understood the movie in a different and good way. I believe that the director wanted the audience to feel what Holly does and through his direction I did. After I was finished examining the films different technical elements, I definitely gained a better understanding of the directors vision of the film. In conclusion I want to say that after taking this class and learning all about Storytelling, Acting, Cinematography, Editing, Sound, Style and Directing, Societal Impact, Genre, and Film Criticism and Analysis I am more in tune to how a movie is made and find that I enjoy watching movies a little better now that I understand what goes into it. Sometimes theres only one thing left to say P. S. I LOVE YOU P. S. I LOVE YOU 11 References Goodykoontz, B. Jacobs, C. P. (2011) Film: From Watching to Seeing. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education, Inc. Retrieved from https://content. ashford. edu/books/AUENG225. 11. 2 IMDB. (2011). P. S. I Love You. Retrieved from http://www. imdb. com/title/tt0431308/combined LaGravenese, R. (Director). (2007). P. S. I Love You. [Motion Picture]. USA:

From a decision making point of view, why are some costs relevant and Essay

From a decision making point of view, why are some costs relevant and others irrelevant Give a detailed example of each - Essay Example Overlooking the irrelevant data in the assessment process moreover would greatly benefit the company in saving time and effort (Averkamp 2012, p.1). For relevant costs, a company could for example be deciding whether to remove a product line or not. This product line could be accounting for about 4% of this firm’s activities. If the company eliminates this product line, the corporation officers will continuously receive similar salaries as before such that the expenses for the central office will not change. Product line managers plus others staffs working directly with this product line however will receive a termination thus eliminating their salaries. According to Averkamp (2012, p.1), such eliminated salaries for individuals who worked directly with the direct line will be relevant in the decision-making process. If the salaries were $700000 when the product line was operational and $0 in its absence, the $700000 savings is therefore relevant (i.e. relevant cost). Considering this same product line scenario, salaries linked to the officers are not relevant for decision-making. This means that whether the salaries amounts to $500,000 or $5, 000,000, they will remain irrelevant. The salaries will be similar in the presence or absence of the product line. Averkamp (2012, p.1) noted that a decision-maker will need not know the expenses of the central office because they will be constant in the presence or absence of the product line. Previous year’s expenses will similarly remain

Maltese Falcon Book Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

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Political science project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Political science project - Essay Example Social and Political effects of IMF Both IIMF and World have played an imperative role in shaping the political, social and economic environments of India, especially with the knowledge that India has been one of the developing countries with unstable environments. In this regard, with the IMF and the World Bank, both the social and political environments of India have been profoundly impacted. Scholars assert that India has received more benefits than losses from the International Financial Institutions. This is because; it is notable that India’s economy has improved since the two institutions came into action. Still, others state that the World Bank created more harm than good by reducing the Indian Economic growth rate (Mishra, 2012). However, one of the notable impacts of World Bank on the Indian economic and social environment is poverty alleviation. Statistics show that so far India has borrowed a total of US$ 65.8 billion from the World Bank. This played a key role to India since it assisted in funding its projects (Kumar, 2012). Needless to say, the funds provided were used in projects such as development of the infrastructure, rural development and social improvements among the citizens. The living standards of Indians have been improved since the poverty level has been reduced. ... Arguably, IMF also plays an extremely significant role in the Indian political and economic environments through a number of ways. This is mainly by providing economic assistance in terms of funding the government projects in the country. In addition, the IMF also provides consultancy services to the country in policy making. Kumar (2012) asserts that these policy making services have had a substantial impact on India’s political and social economy. This is because; with better policies in the country, cases of corruption are reduced and there is political integrity. In addition, borrowed funds will be utilized efficiently and thus there will be overall growth among the citizens (Eiras, 2003). Another social impact that has been observed is the improvement of the health of the citizens. A report by Kumar (2012) about the effects of IMF on India showed that, due to lack of food and other necessities the country suffered from health problems. In addition, a report given in the y ear 2007 showed that most children of the poor families in India were born while suffering from malnutrition (Mishra, 2012). This is because, the pregnant mothers had not been well fed during their maternity periods. With funding from the IMF and the World Bank, the country can provide food assistance to the poor families and thus, promoting the health of many of the citizens (Mishra, 2012). Cases of food starvation in the country have also been reduced, thus impacting the society positively since cases of theft or tribal clashes have reduced. This is a serious social effect in India since it promotes peace and stability in the country. In reference to Lagarde (2012), the World Bank and the IMF have positive effects

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European culture Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

European culture - Research Paper Example Symbols consist of words, gestures, pictures, and objects representing a particular meaning. People sharing the culture only understand the meaning (Bondebjerg, 2004). The research seeks to find out the influence of the historic European culture to the present culture. It will highlight the current culture and matters of art and recreation such as music. The culture of Europe comprise of many overlapping cultures (Bundaberg, 2004). This indicates that now common culture does not exist. European culture passed through a series of events under different groups of people. The Greeks laid the foundations of the modern culture. Romans strengthened it while the Christians established it with the help of the other Europeans. In the fifteenth century, renaissance and reformation reformed and modernized the culture. The European empires that came after reformation globalized the culture. This culture succeeded to influence other cultures of the world through European education and Christianity (Goldstein, & Council of Europe, 2005). Culture consists of many aspects. By grouping similar aspects together, Scholars came up with five main components of culture. They include communication, cognitive component; material component, behavioral aspects, and religious aspects .communication comprise language. Language forms the most important aspect of culture in all cultures. People of the same culture interact and socialize with each other through the language (Goldstein, & Council of Europe, 2005). A symbol is anything used or shown to pass a particular massage or meaning. They vary with cultures although sometime they cut across many cultures. Cognitive component forms the second major aspect of culture. It comprises the ideas, knowledge, beliefs, and values of a particular group of people. Knowledge, considered as the storage of information fact and assumptions passes from generation to generation through formal

Biology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Biology - Essay Example Some of the first scientists to pioneer into the field of modern genetics and evolution were Gregor Mendel and Charles Darwin. Gregor Mendel was an Austrian monk who is considered to be the father of modern genetics. Specifically, his intellectual curiosity stemmed from his technique and involvement in horticulture, specifically pea plants. He was interested in how the transmission of traits occurred not only in his pea plants, but in people as well. He used selective breeding techniques to track the traits as they were passed on from generation to generation. The reason that Mendel chose to study pea plants was due to the fact that pea plants are a model organism. The traits were easily observable (pea color, pea shape, stem length, etc.). He could also cultivate multiple generations quickly in order to collect his data regarding the experiments. From his data, he was able to show that the current theory of the time, blending theory, was incorrect. Unfortunately, most of his work an d theory was not recognized until after his death (Edleson, 2001). The basis by which all rules in modern genetics are derived from are from the three laws that lay the foundation for genetic study: the law of dominance, the law of segregation, and the law of independent assortment. The law of dominance states that in genes, there are two copies. The gene that is expressed is dominant over the other and the one that is not shown is recessive. This was observed in the pea color of Mendel’s plants in that the yellow color was dominant and the green was recessive. The law of segregation states that during gamete formation, the pairs of genes will separate randomly and then will combine during fertilization. This is what produces the genetic variability in an organism. Lastly, the law of independent assortment states that the way in which genes are sorted during gamete formation is completely random and that they do not have an effect on one another during this process. These rul es of genetics have remained unchallenged and are the fundamentals of understanding complex genetic theory (Griffiths, et. Al., 2008). Charles Darwin was a British naturalist who developed the modern theory of evolution. He specifically was interested in the way in which evolution occurred. The observations for his theory were a majority from his voyage to the Galapagos Islands on the HMS Beagle. He considered the Galapagos Islands to be a sort of â€Å"cradle of creation† in that the isolation of the island from humans allowed it to be a hot spot for ecological and evolutionary development. He collected many different specimens and fossils that he noticed were similar species. It was from this that he hypothesized that there was a mechanism by which evolution occurred and that this could be observed through studying the ecology of the region. He published his findings in the Origin of Species and was at first scrutinized for his theories, often being described as blasphemy a gainst the notion of a scientific theory for creation. Never the less, Darwin’s theories regarding evolution became the groundwork for scientists today who are studying modern evolution (Greenberger, 2005). Darwin’s theory of evolution was based on the concept of natural selection and survival of the fittest. Natural selection states that based on the traits that are expressed by a species that some of them will allow greater adaptation to the environment than others. This adaptation makes the organism â€Å"

International Business and Trade. WTO Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

International Business and Trade. WTO - Essay Example The widest application of the protectionist movement is in the incubation of new industries which by themselves cannot survive the harsh realities if the competitive market, the idea being the protection will be withdrawn once the company is established (Iowa State university, n.d.). This concept is however extended in modern times and as captured by the events of the case study evolved to be proactive rather than reactive, where we see that the European Countries, namely France, Germany, Spain and Great Britain formed an alliance whose sole purpose was to gather enough capital to birth and sustain an aircraft manufacturing business with enough resources to effectively compete with the hitherto world monopoly of US based Boeing, the result of which was the birth of Airbus (Holmes, 2004). Given its current market strength, Boeing was enjoying vast economies of scale thus posing a significant barrier to entry to any interested private firm, and in the absence of competitive forces, concentrated more in research and development rather than marketing, and thus when they interfered with this monopoly power, the European governments eroded Boeing's potential returns from its investment, thus interfering with the market mechanism, and hence the first issue/conflict of the study. The second issue has to do with the governments' support of private enterprise, especially as it relates to the struggle that exists between one side trying to eliminate while the other struggles to sustain a major world monopoly. As mentioned above the aircraft industry is extensively capital intensive, and whatever labour is involved is highly skilled and specialized, as evidenced by the investments in Research and Development by both sides of the conflict presented in the study. The world authority on trade, the World Trade Organization clearly prohibits the support of private enterprise by governments and other public entities. Differences in terms of reference is also a major issue that has been highlighted in the case study. The Americans do not consider the massive government contracts that were awarded to Boeing as any form of government support, that is they argue that they did not interfere with the market but rather only participated in it, in a willing buyer willing seller fashion. This is of course in sharp contrast with the Europeans' initial direct capital investment into Airbus, let alone the continuing capital inflows into the company for continuing research and development in the form of very soft loans. The effect of governments' activities on both sides is basically the same, essentially to strengthen the respective aircraft manufacturers, therefore the argument lies in channels through which support was availed, rather than whether it was actually availed or not. The relation of the above activities to protectionism is where we find on one side a government being the largest and most lucrative domestic customer to the company, thereby not only preventing any foreign competition in the domestic market, but also propelling it into world dominance (fulfilling the mercantilist view of what protectionism is all about) and preventing other foreign nations from producing the same product and

Deceit in Hunters in the Snow Essay Example for Free

Deceit in Hunters in the Snow Essay Tobias Wolff’s â€Å"Hunters in the Snow† centers on the actions and personalities of Kenny, Frank and Tub as they embark on a hunting trip during the winter. Each character faces problems (in character or otherwise) which they attempt to cover up through deception – the central theme in this short story – in order to accept their respective actions. The consequences of these cover ups profoundly change the power of each character over another. Furthermore, the characters don’t realize how their lies influence others around them. Kenny is a quintessential bully. His need for power over the other two causes him to assert control of any action be it driving or asking for permission to hunt on private grounds. In truth, he doesn’t even wish to ask for permission but is pressured by Frank to do so. Kenny’s seemingly flippant mannerisms also follow from his desire to be the alpha-male. He insults and mercilessly teases Frank and Tub about their insecurities. He pretends to desire to run over Tub after appearing an hour late and immediately silences any objection from Tub. However, he neither realizes how far he is pushing Tub nor the peril he is in. His stupid actions leading up to and after the murder of the old dog finally push Tub, who legitimately fears for his life, to retaliate. This immediately puts Kenny’s life at the hands of his bully victims and leaves a power vacuum to be filled. Tub’s main problem is his denial of the poor eating habits that he has. He adamantly tries to convince others that his problem is due to his glans despite acutely knowing that he gorges himself on unhealthy foods in solitude. The insecurity he feels about being found out causes him to become easily manipulated and bullied by Frank and Kenny. Moreover, the retaliation against Kenny only adds to the insecurity Tub has and he immediately searches for approval and protection against the consequence of shooting Kenny. Frank fills in this vacuum and manipulates Tub into siding with him. Frank himself faces the issue of adultery. His lust for another woman causes him to deceive himself into believing that this new female is the love of his life despite a small part of his conscience stating otherwise. He even goes as far as to perverse the beliefs of that small part by asserting that his reluctance is only due to the good that his wife had done him and the kids they had. Frank’s self-deception inadvertently acts on Tub’s insecurities, prompting Tub to open up about his problems to Frank. By deceiving himself to accept his adultery, Frank pushes Tub to accept the eating problems that Tub has by giving in to Tub’s urges. Frank is unaware that his acceptance of adultery has already influenced Tub to succumb to Tub’s desires (shown by the fact that Tub decides to open up to Frank). Each character has major issues that need to be corrected but prefer to deceive themselves and others than accept the truth and work towards correction. As such, Kenny lies in mortal peril, Frank gains newfound power in the group and over Tub, and Tub remains submissive to Frank’s wishes. Moreover, the newfound confidence in Frank leads him to ignore common sense in going back to retrieve vital directions to the hospital. The futures of these three characters is left hanging, however it is clear that the ending has each one moving down separate and erroneous paths.

An Insight into Academic Writing Essay Example for Free

An Insight into Academic Writing Essay Authors Gerald Graff and Cathy Berkenstein claim in their book, They Say, I Say, that academic writing is not about â€Å"playing it safe and piling up truths and bits of knowledge,† like many people assume. Rather, it is about the dynamic interaction between other people’s points of view and the author’s response to those perspectives. In chapter one of Graff and Berkenstein’s book they emphasize the necessity of balance when implementing certain writing â€Å"moves,† specifically, when introducing a counter-view, summarizing other’s arguments, and when quoting someone else’s words. Graff and Berkenstein contend that by opening an argument with an explanation of what the thesis is responding tointroducing a counter-viewgives the main point clarity and relevance. They encourage stating the opposing view or assumption initially so that it will define and explain what the thesis is addressing. But, they also caution the writer not to bloat their introduction with extraneous information for fear of losing the audience’s focus and engagement. What Graff and Berkenstein suggest, then, is that â€Å"as soon as possible you state your own position and the one it’s responding to together, and that you think of the two as a unit. † Basically, they insist that the best way to give a â€Å"genuine response to other’s views† during academic writing is to have a balance between introducing what â€Å"They Say† (the opposing point of view) and what â€Å"I Say† (the writer’s response). If being in a constant dialogue with others’ positions is essential to arguing persuasively, as Graff and Berkenstein claim, â€Å"then summarizing others’ arguments is central to [the writer’s] arsenal of basic moves. † All too often during a summary, writers will provide their own opinions on an article’s topic rather than revealing what the article is actually stating. On the opposite extreme, there are the writers who â€Å"do nothing but summarize,† which dilutes their own views in an ocean of someone else’s ideas. Graff and Berkenstein remind us that a â€Å"good summary requires balancing what the original author is saying with the writer’s own focus. † In other words, an exceptional summary contains the perspective of the original author, while emphasizing the points the responding author wants to address. One of the best ways to initiate an effective argument is not only to summarize what they say, but to quote their exact words. According to Graff and Berkenstein, â€Å"Quoting someone else’s words gives a tremendous amount of credibility to your summary and helps ensure that it is fair and accurate. † By quoting someone else’s exact statement it serves as a proof of evidence that you are not just fabricating another’s claim, but that you are disclosing their true ideas. Like introducing a counter-view and summarizing, quoting requires that you find an ideal balance between the quantity of quotes and content of commentary. A common issue with quoting is when the author assumes the quote speaks for itself. As Graff and Berkenstein, quotes are like literary orphans that have been taken from their original context, â€Å"they need to be integrated into their new textual surroundings. † In simpler terms, a quote needs to be introduced, interpreted, and then connected to the central idea. I found chapter one of Graff and Berkenstein’s book, â€Å"They Say,† to be extremely interesting and useful. The way they tied all their information to a central idea, while explaining how to do just that fascinated me. I felt like their writing had a constant flow from introduction of a move, to implementing balance, to common problems, how to fix those problems, and then to exercises that would reinforce their primary concepts. Their style and content kept me engaged and focused. Also, I learned a handful of writing tactics, like introducing a counter-view, summarizing, and inserting quotes, that I was not one-hundred percent sure on how to do prior to the reading. Overall, I found the chapter to be engaging, informative, and beneficial to me and my writing style.

Are Genocidal Perpetrators Ordinary Men or Ideological Monsters

Are Genocidal Perpetrators Ordinary Men or Ideological Monsters The term genocide was coined by Raphael Lemkin as a response to the mass murder of Jews, Jehovahs Witnesses, Romani, homosexuals and other minority demographics discriminated against and ultimately murdered on a mass scale in Nazi occupied Europe in the 1930s and 1940s. Prior to Lemkins definition, the Holocaust was, as Churchill described it, a crime without a name (Jones, 2006:8). Lemkins definition described the crime as the destruction of a nation or an ethnic group (Jones, 2006:10) and was later adopted by the newly formed United Nations in the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948) which in Article 2 defined the crime as acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group including murder; causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; or forcibly transferring children from the group to another. The question arises however, as to how individual perpetrators of genocide could be considered normal or ordinary and not the evil of their actions; a debate summarised by Matthà ¤us as ordinary men vs. natural born killers (1996:134). We label the perpetrators of crimes we deem particularly heinous because, as Waller argues a world in which ordinary people would be capable of extraordinary evil is simply too psychologically threatening (1996:12) and incomprehensible because we fail to comprehend something about them (Dudai 2006:699). Following the Holocaust, much academic research was conducted across multiple disciplines in an attempt to explain how an otherwise outwardly normal person could be, or become, a perpetrator of genocide. Goldhagen explained the actions of perpetrators of the Holocaust as based entirely on the entrenched historical anti-Semitism within Germany and such a monocausal explanation is sufficient (1997:416); however his thesis assumes that the majority of German citizens believed in this ideology and focuses only on the genocide of European Jews. Conversely, Browning (2001), Bauman (2009) and others have argued that the actions of individuals are a response to their immediate social surroundings and that their role in the social structure of hierarchy has a far greater impact on complicity. Mann, however, bridges these two central reasons as to why perpetrators commit their crimes. Firstly, the individuals were peculiar people, either ideologically motivated or disturbed perhaps by mental ill-health or as a result of their upbringing, career path or marginalised lifestyle. Secondly, the individuals were largely ordinary but bigoted, trapped in a coercive and comradely organization, trapped within a bureaucracy or pursuing material goals (2000:232-3). Utilising social-psychological studies, sociological and historical research, it will be shown that where genocide occurs, the individual perpetrators who actively participate in acts of violence or murder are largely normal, healthy human beings who respond to the micro social situations and organizations in which they find themselves. Although the research focuses primarily on the Jewish Holocaust of Nazi Europe, other twentieth century genocides will be considered to assess whether ideology was the primary factor across the spectrum. A critique of Goldhagens thesis of eliminationist anti-Semitism will be presented to discuss that this was the wider, macro social environment of genocide but was not the sole reason why individuals were complicit. The Macro, Ideological Approach Dudai argued that the ideology of genocide is the macro social environment in which perpetrators act (2006). Accordingly, ideology was central to genocidal policies of the twentieth century; racial as in the case of the Turkish genocide in Armenia or the Serbian genocide of Muslims; against a class for example in the Communist genocides in Russia, Cambodia and during Maos Great Leap Forward in China; or an intertwining of both as with the Holocaust (2003:176-177). Societies in which violence is idealised and an acceptable form of achieving goals are more likely to utilise violence by the state as a means of social control (Staub, 2002: 55) for example, Germany had a strong use of violence to manage the unruly during the Weimar republic (Rafter, 2008) and Russian Communists found violence to be valuable and necessary (Staub, 2002:54) and were therefore more likely to be violent and aggressive in order to achieve their ideological goals. William Gladstone claimed The very worst things that men have ever done, have been done when they were performing acts of violence in the name of religion (Jones, 2006:400). Staub argues that pluralistic societies are less likely to be susceptible to narrow ideology as individuals are offered a more independent perspective without fear of ostracism or physical danger (2002:235) therefore suggesting that without the rigorous hierarchy and oppression of genocidal states, individuals may have the ability to choose not to participate. Where genocide takes place, a process of othering takes place whereby the persecutors believe themselves to be superior and their enemies, the others, inferior. Howard Becker defined the outsider as the individual or group who fail to abide by the rules of his wider social group, imposed by the insiders. To be an outsider does not require a specific act but is a consequence of the application by others of rules and sanctions (Becker, 1968:11). Anti-Semitism had existed for centuries in Germany and across Europe prior to the Holocaust however, the concept that eliminationist anti-Semitism (Goldhagen, 1997:71) was a standard belief is highly discredited. Goldhagen infamously argued that the Germans had for centuries harboured homicidal animosity towards Jews which lead to 80-90 percent of the German population under Nazi rule wanting to murder them (1997:541) although he presents no evidence for this assumption. European anti-Semitism was partly a result of Christian dogma regarding Jews as the killers of Christ and unbelievers early in the middle ages, perpetuated by the education of Christian children in the criminality and inferiority of Jews (Staub, 2002:101). Although the Christian Church had never outwardly called for the destruction of the Jewish faith, the Church had made the Jewish people a symbol of unredeemed humanity; it painted a picture of the Jews as a blind, stubborn, carnal, and perverse people (Blass, 1993: 44). Mann studied fifteen hundred biographies of perpetrators of the Holocaust in an attempt to explain who these people were, finding an unexpected correlation between Christianity and Nazism whereby those who identified with the Catholic Church were disproportionately represented as perpetrators (2000:347). Similarly, the Christian Armenians had, for centuries lived under oppressive Ottoman rule and under aspects of Islamic law. Under Islamic civil law, Muslims enjoyed the full rights and duties of citizenship whereas dhimmà ®, non-Muslims, were to be endured with great inequality between the two groups (Akcam, 2007:7). Edicts dating back to the sixteenth century declared that the dhimmà ® were unable to testify against Muslims in court or marry Muslims and they were unable to observe their religious practices if it would disturb Muslims, therefore building new churches or ringing bells was forbidden and repairs to existing churches required official permission from the state. P hysical othering also took place to identify non-Muslims as socially lower than their Muslim counterparts where houses were not to be built higher than Muslims, valuable materials such as silk were not to be worn and head and footwear were to be coloured red (Akcam, 2007:9).In Rwanda, Jones argues that the high rates of conversion in religion to Islam from Catholicism was a result of Islamic rejection of participation in the genocide and the rescuing of Tutsi (2006:400). However, secular ideology can be as destructive as fundamentalist, extremist religious ideology in the instigation of genocide (Jones, 2006:400). Indeed, secular ideologies have underpinned twentieth century genocides (Jones, 2006:400). If Goldhagen is considered to be incorrect in his assertion that traditional and historical eliminationist anti-Semitism was the sole reason behind the Holocaust, new ideologies must also be considered as to the macro social background behind genocides in the twentieth century. Stalins Russia, Maos China and the Khmer Rouges Cambodia were based on Marxist Communist theory which, although written decades prior to the genocide, caused new political revolutions in which individuals fought for a new role in society. Maslow identified cultural differences in synergy, the extent to which individuals forfeit their own gains and fulfil themselves by contributing to a common good (Staub, 2002:51). As one Stalinist perpetrator argued, with the rest of my genera tion I firmly believed that the ends justified the means. Our great goal was the universal triumph of Communism, and for the sake of that goal everything was permissible to lie, to steal, to destroy hundreds of thousands and even millions of people (Jones, 2006:401). However, universality of acceptance of the new regimes was not the case. Davis argues that Stalins terror famine and the famine of Maos Great Leap Forward were the culmination of violence and killing of the peasantry, designed to break independent spirits and force subordination (Shaw, 2003:39). Furthermore, resistance to the movements became common with some families choosing suicide over living under Communist rule and subsequent starvation, by choosing to kill livestock rather than hand it over to the Communist party or being part of violent uprisings (Shaw, 2003:55). If one considers the role of capitalist, democratic ideology in recent warfare, enforcing this ideology in other countries has, in some instances been very unpopular. The anti-Vietnam movement, for example, demonstrated against the United States bombing of Cambodia as part of the war on Communism in Vietnam (Shaw, 2003:202) and there were similar demonstrations against the early twenty-first centurys war in Iraq which held the intention of restoring democracy to the Iraqi people but was highly unpopular with British citizens. Goldhagen argues, with no supporting evidence, that the bystanders of Kristallnacht, the infamous pogrom in 1938, believed this would serve the Jews right because the absence of evidence is evidence itself (Augstein, 1998:157) however if anti-Semitic ideology was as traditional and prolific in other European countries as Goldhagen argues, the thesis neglects to reason why for the majority of Europe, it took Nazi invasion or annexation to give rise to such eliminationist attitudes. In Italy where anti-Semitism was rife, it was only when the country attempted to further their allegiance to Germany that anti-Semitic policy increased (Rafter, 2008:302). Conversely, Czechoslovakia for example had a long history of anti-Semitism with pogroms and the forced removal of Jews into a ghetto in the Josefov district of Prague dating back to the thirteenth century but had made no outward attempts to deliberately exterminate the Jewish population. Moreover, if the eliminationist anti-Semitic ideolo gy was so powerful in Germany, Goldhagen, in acknowledging that without the economic depression the Nazis would have never come to power, fails to consider why the overwhelming desire to eliminate the Jews was not acted upon sooner (Finkelstein, 1997:42). Responses to Nazi occupation varied greatly both within occupied areas and globally for example, Jan Karski infiltrated the Warsaw ghetto and Belzec concentration camp, escaping to London with hundreds of documents detailing the genocide taking place but many, Jews included, found the actions unbelievable (Jones, 2006:399) and early reports following the liberation of Auschwitz were disbelieved by the British media who only reported their findings after other global media had verified and reported. Furthermore, if the ideology was so entrenched in society and traditionally perceived as a threat, Goldhagen fails to acknowledge why many Jewish citizens of occupied Europe did not attempt to emigrate sooner, believed the Nazi propagand a detailing their resettlement at work camps and that the gas chambers in extermination camps were shower facilities as testimony from those survived the concentration camps and particularly those who worked in the Sonderkommando (special units of concentration camp prisoners who worked in the gas chambers and crematoria) describes (for example Venezia, 2009; Mà ¼ller, 1999; Haas, 1984). Moreover, Goldhagen fails to explain why the eliminationist ideology rapidly dissipated (Goldhagen, 1997:593-4) following the fall of Berlin and Nazi rule. Propaganda and indoctrination are highly used in genocide to spread the state ideology across the masses. For example, propaganda in Nazi Europe and indoctrination of Argentinean soldiers to promote character, honour and pride (Staub 2002:214). Coupled with the perceived threat of Communism, propaganda was highly used against the Jews, portraying them as not only racial inferiors but as assisting in Bolshevism (Jones, 2006:267). Indeed, perpetrators were more likely to have originated from the threatened borders of the Reich where anti-Bolshevism and anti-Semitism were great (Mann, 2000:348). Similarly, the Hutu portrayed the Tutsi as bloodthirsty foreigners intent on exterminating the Hutu (Valentino, 2005:35) by means such as the radio and the extremist Hutu newspaper, the Radio-Tà ©là ©vision Libre des Mille Collines and Kangura respectively, and calling on Hutu to follow the infamous Hutu Ten Commandments calling for vigilance against the Tutsi enemy (Jones, 2006:237). The 1972 genocide in Burundi of Hutus was a theme of Hutu political discourse and used in an attempt to invoke fear in the Hutu population, that if the Tutsi were not destroyed, the Tutsi would destroy the Hutu (Valentino, 2005:183) for although there was little evidence of fear and hostility between the two groups prior to the 1994 genocide, the conflict was engineered (Valentino, 2005:57). Ideological propaganda can be received by individuals differently however. Franz Stangl, commandant of Treblinka believed propaganda was used by the Nazis to condition those who actually had to carry out these policies to make it possible for them to do what they did, further arguing that the primary motive for genocide was for Nazi control of Jewish money and property (Semelin, 2003:270). Self-concept is a large factor in the ideology of genocide. Germany had lost a large proportion of their territory following their defeat in World War I, a war fought to gain the power and advantages Germany felt were owed to them, and the subsequent Treaty of Versailles. Hitler subsequently blamed the Jews for the loss of the war and, owing to the Sonderweg (special status of the country) (Elias, 1996:438) declared that Germany needed more Lebensraum (living space) resulting in the invasion of many countries across Europe to regain land which was seen as belonging to Germany. Moreover, individuals may have a strong sense of belonging to a group, identified for or against by visible symbols, education and other means (Staub, 2002:253). Self image is reinforced by the relationship to the others, the outsiders who have been deemed a threat by the social group. For example we may consider the attitude of the British in their war efforts in World War II or the social responses to terrori sm in comparison with genocidal action; where a threat (whether real or imaginary) is posed by one social group against another a unity of identity forms. Racially unclean social groups in Nazi occupied Europe, including the mentally and physically ill, were deemed inferior and inherently criminal based on biological criminology and alterations to Lombrosos Born Criminal thesis (Rafter, 2008). Where the Weimar Republic had been a series of turbulent governments and viewed as soft on crime, a more authoritarian policy on crime and criminals was called for by conservatives. Hitler was, Goldhagen argues, not seen as a madman but a politician to be taken seriously (Augstein 1998:157). With biological evidence collected by the Criminal-Biological Service in Bavaria that these groups were the cause of crime within the state, the ideological policies became incorporated into the criminal justice system, further perpetuating the image of the Jew as inferior and a potential threat to the German way of life. The Micro, Bureaucratic and Hierarchical Approach An acknowledgement of ideology must therefore be considered to underpin the rationale of genocide. Browning, in arguing a multi-causal rationale of the Holocaust acknowledges the deluge of racist and anti-Semitic propaganda (Jones, 2006:270), however he also questions the role of obedience, peer pressure and obligation. Arendts Report on the Banality of Evil impacted greatly on the impression we have of perpetrators of genocide, drawing focus away from the pathological and towards more social explanations of their actions (Dudai, 2006:700), followed by Bauman who argued that cruelty is social in its origin much more than it is characterological (Bauman, 1989:116). Prior to multi-disciplined research into the psychology of perpetrators, individual participants were believed to be mentally ill. Goldhagen reinstates this claim, arguing that the anti-Semitic ideology made the Germans pathologically ill, struck with illness of sadism diseased, tyrannical and sadistic (Goldhagen, 1997:397). Blass discusses a dispositional approach to the individual pathologies of the perpetrators in that they may be in some way mentally unhealthy (Blass, 1993:37). Rorschach ink-blot tests were conducted on Nazi leaders prior to the Nuremberg trials in 1945 to conclude that they were of a distinct group and were not psychologically normal or healthy individuals (Blass, 1993:37). However, the findings have largely been discredited with Kelley arguing that the personalities displayed were not unique or insane and could be duplicated in any country of the world today; the tests were not blind and the researchers could therefore have been biased in their analyses and whe re blind analyses were conducted there was individuality of results that contradicted the conclusion of a uniform distinction setting apart the perpetrators (Blass, 1993:37). Where Eichmann had been perceived by Arendt and Wiesenthal to be normal and acting under orders, blind analyses of personality tests revealed him to be sadistic and violent in his hostility, quite paranoid and a criminal with an insatiable killing intention (Blass, 1993:37). Finkelstein rebuts this claim, arguing that a homogeneously sick society would act as an alibi for the perpetrators for who can condemn a crazy people (Finkelstein, 1997:44). Arendt, who was present at the trial of Eichmann found him to be normal and there to be potentially an Eichmann in every one of us (2005:113). Nazi ideology and German culture in the 1930s and 1940s were strongly affiliated with the concept of obedience, indeed as Berger notes, the first commandment in indoctrinating Nazi youth was the leader is always right (Blass, 1993:33).The Holocaust in Nazi Europe took place under a strict bureaucratic regime with a meticulous division of labour and linear graduation of power (Bauman, 2009:98). Those faced with the task of directly murdering enemies were the subordinates at the end of a long bureaucratic chain leading to Himmler, the head of the SS and Heydrich, the head of the Einsatzgruppen. The practical and mental distance afforded to those at higher levels of the bureaucracy who may have had little experience or knowledge of the true nature of the delegated orders was not the case for those whose responsibility it was to shoot at point-blank range in the Einsatzgruppen or pour in the poison Zyklon B pellets into the gas chambers (Bauman, 2009:99). The obedience that allows the subordinates of a hierarchy to commit murder is therefore of critical importance. A psychological explanation offered by Blass is that of a situational perspective, whereby forces outside of the individual, largely from the social environment such as the position in a hierarchy and subordination can explain seemingly deviant or counter normative behaviour as a result of the immediate situation (Blass, 1993:31). Blass argues that the results of Milgrams obedience experiments are representative of the causal relationship between the immediate situation and the reactions of individuals. Milgrams experiment consisted of asking the subject to apply increasing voltages of electric shock to the learner should they answer a question incorrectly in 15 volt increments up to 450 volts, ominously marked XXX. 65% of subjects subjected the learner to the highest levels of voltage and he concluded that individuals could become agents in a terrible destructive process o ut of a sense of obligation, through the course of their jobs and without any hostility towards their victim (Blass, 1993:33). Responsibility for any harm caused was relinquished to the legitimate authority, the examiner, and the subordinate subject was no longer guided by conscience but the extent to which they obey the orders of authority (Blass, 1993:33). Similar experiments were carried out throughout the 1970s including that of Ring, Wallston and Corey who found a 91% obedience rate in applying painful sound to a learner, even when the experiment appeared to go awry and surprise even the experimenter (Blass, 1993:34). In the well-documented experiments conducted by Zimbardo, individuals were randomly labelled as prisoner or guard and were to carry out these roles in a controlled environment for a period of time. Those labelled as guards, knowing they were overseeing individuals who were had in no way been labelled as inferior prior to the experiment, became overly zealous in their positions and when physical violence and humiliation was utilised against the prisoners, the experiment was halted on ethical grounds. Zimbardo concluded that the dominant positioning within the hierarchy allowed sadistic behaviour to be elicited from non-sadistic, normal people who would exert violence on their equals because their social positioning allowed them to (Valentino, 2005:44-46) Two social-psychological theories attempt to explain the actions of genocide perpetrators whilst obediently following orders. The concept of the divided-self considers that the self, our personality and behaviour remains intact but a second self is created or activated in a new situation. Conversely, unitary-self theories argue that there is a single self which becomes altered as a result of the societal forces, situations and organisations (Waller, 1996:12). Lifton uses examples of The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde or the comic, Superman in his analogy of the divided self in that when presented with a situation of distress, a character such as Clark Kent changes into his alter-ego of Superman to save the world (Waller, 1996:13). Clark Kent remains the primary self but Superman, the secondary self, becomes activated and controls the behaviour of the body and mind. A variation of this dissociation may be doubling where the two selves are separate with no conflicts and where mo ral standards are annulled (Waller, 1996:14-15). Auschwitz survivors have described some of the doctors as two different people (Waller, 1996:26) For example, The Nazi doctor, Mengele who performed pseudo-medical experiments on Auschwitz inmates asked children to call him uncle and would appear to behave with kindness, playing with them and giving them luxuries of sweets and chocolate only to continue to perform his experiments and murder (Nomberg-Przytyk, 1985:104). Steiner also noted differing psychosocial types which only present under certain conditions for example the sleeper will not be apparent until an environment allows for or causes the release (Blass, 1993:43). Bauman similarly notes a difference in personalities dependent upon the extraordinary situations in which one finds oneself. Recounting the studies of Le Monde, survivors of a hijacking had a high incidence of divorce owing to individuals seeing their partners in a different light; good husband were selfish, the br ave business man displayed cowardice and the resourceful fell to pieces'(Bauman, 2009:6). The journalist questioned which face of the survivors was their true self; the original or their selves during the hijacking and concluded that neither was more true than the other. The normal good face was apparent in ordinary settings and, but for the extraordinary circumstance of the hijacking, the other self would have remained dormant (Bauman, 2009:6). Milgram contended that in conforming to the orders of a superior, an agentic state is created where the individual operates on the behalf of their superior and thus becomes an agent of their will. Similar to Steiners psychosocial types and Baumans analogy of the hijack victims, Milgram argues that this state lies dormant until it is required that one will act under orders. However, unlike Liftons doubling, the agentic state avoids an inner moral conflict by toggling between the autonomous and agentic states (Waller, 1996:16). More contemporary social psychology has adopted a strategy of the unitary self. When an individual is faced with actions which are inconsistent with their morality, they must either alter their behaviour or their personality as inconsistencies between the two cause individuals to feel troubled (Waller, 1996:16). In certain situations, including the rigid hierarchy of the SS where each individual was accountable to an immediate supervisor (Bauman, 2009:100), changing ones behaviour may not be possible or desired as individuals who hid or aided a Jew were punishable by death (Staub, 2002:165) as were moderate-Hutu in Rwanda (Jones, 2006:238). Fear is arguably a motivation for compliance. As Augstein criticised Goldhagen, he had grown up in an American democracy and could not imaging the conformist pressure and moral cowardice which took place under Hitlers dictatorship (Augstein, 1998:153). In Cambodia, one survivor talked of his complicity in the violence saying Collaborate? Everyone do what Khmer Rouge say no one want to be killed (Baum, 2008:158). Therefore in order to remain consistent, the manifest conformity to rules and orders may lead to a change in the self (Waller 1996:16). Waller furthers this argument by stating that there are three catalysts to the internal changes in the selves of direct perpetrators of genocide; devaluing and dehumanising the victim and blaming them for their own suffering; the escalating of commitments to a cause; and learning by doing. The process of dehumanization was raised in the Rwandan context by Hatzfeld as one perpetrator felt they no longer regarded the Tutsi as people as the killing escalated (2005:47). While Goldhagens answer to the Germans murder of the Jews was because they wanted to, Foster, Haupt and de Beers answer to the political violence in South Africa was because they felt entitled to (Dudai, 2005:703). Entitlement would imply an option of redeeming behaviour by the victims however victims of genocide are not persecuted because of what they do rather, who they are. Routinisation of actions are argued to facilitate genocide, for example Hatzfeld quotes one Rwandan informant who claimed I struck a first blow. When I saw the blood bubble up, I jumped back a step later on we go used to killing without so much dodging around (Hatzfeld,2005:23)and repetition caused the perpetrators to become more and more cruel, more and more calm, more and more bloody (2005:50). Furthermore, Waller argues that coerced behaviour is rarely internalised however when our initial attitudes are weak, the initial act may result in a change of attitude (1996:22). The attitude of ones superiors could directly influence the behaviour of the subordinates. For example the police sergeant, Hein, was never seen to hit or humiliate a Jew, participate in mass-killings of Jews, or be unfair in his treatment of Jews. Furthermore, those under his command could abstain from the mass-shootings. However, self presentation theorists seek to explain Heins following of official requirements for Jews to stand whilst he was sitting as an attempt to maintain an appearance of conforming whilst inwardly rejecting the ideology (Matthaus, 1996:141). Goldhagen argued that the cruelty of the perpetrators of the Holocaust was nearly universal (Valentino, 2005:52) however a surprising number of the Einsazgruppen refused to participate, perhaps twenty to thirty percent in comparison to the less than thirty percent who presented themselves as enthusiastic and the remaining members who dutifully adopted their roles within the system (Valentino, 2005:54). During their first mass killing in Lithuania, the Schutzpolizei (urban police) members of one Einsatzgruppen (mobile killing unit) dropped out of the act because they knew some of the victims or could not stand the mental pressure. Furthermore, doubts were raised regarding the legality of the killings and justifications were made amongst themselves that one generation has to go through this so that our children will have a better life (Matthaus 1996:136). However, obedience need not be in a downward, linear direction but obedience to ones peers. Browning argues that for some members of a police battalion faced with the mass-shooting of Jews, comrades not participating would be seen to leave the dirty work to their comrades, risking isolation, rejection and ostracism which, in the tightly knit regiments, would have been an uncomfortable prospect (Valentino, 2005:46). Similarly, a unity existed between the Hutu, using lexis as comrades and patriotic brothers (Hatzfeld, 2005:12). Where Browning argued members of the Einsatzgruppen existed in a reverse morality; where those who avoided killings were regarded, by themselves included, as cowards, in Rwanda, a supportive comrade would assist when one perpetrator felt unable to participate that day whilst the individual would contribute with other useful tasks (Hatzfeld, 2005:74). Hilberg argued that the methods for genocide of European Jews in the 1930s and 1940s were not suggested entirely by those further up the hierarchy; major ideas could be produced by those at a lower level of responsibility and approved by superiors to become policy (Blass, 1993:37). Manns biographical study of perpetrators included an examination of the previous job positions held by individuals prior to Nazi rule and found correlations between Nazi policy, related institutions and individuals within them. For example, a key Nazi policy was racial purity, ensuring the Aryan race was free of those considered undesirable, beginning early in the rule with the T4 experiments to euthanize those with mental or physical health problems. Correlating with this policy, Mann found 13.53% of his sample to have been previously employed as healthcare workers. Rafters assertions of Nazi racial policy impacting on German criminology and policy within the Criminal Justice System correlate with 22.29% of Manns sampled perpetrators holding previous employment in the military, police or prison system, 12.92% having held employment in civil administration and 3.38% having worked in the legal field (2000:350). Individuals may therefore have acted in an agentic state towards the Nazi ideology because this was their profession and they were caught up in the hierarchy and bureaucracy. In instances of revolution and rapid-paced political change, however, an anomic theory where a lack of social position and role in a hierarchy, as a